I thank my family and friends, especially my wife and daughter — listeners and conversation partners always willing to take part in eloquent philosophical explorations during the most ordinary moments, over coffee or at the end of a meal — who thereby became my first students and teachers. A source of encouragement and immense personal growth.
To all the good Yoga teachers along my path, with special thanks to Professor Marilene Lara and Professor Sérgio Carvalho, masters in the best sense of the word, who showed with complete integrity, and through their own example, what truly matters in the refinement of our existence, never seeking any mention or credit despite their significant contribution. An inspiration for continuous improvement.
I am also grateful to all my classmates from the training course, whose diversity of backgrounds and profiles makes it possible to see how paths can manifest in many different ways, even though, within the integration that is Yoga, the ultimate goal remains the same. Expanding one's vision broadens one's experience and one's being.
The alignment of our aspirations with the ideas advocated by a philosophy, by a practice such as Yoga, is a determining factor in our fulfillment or, at the very least, in our persistence along that path, and an element for questioning our choices and our own definition as beings exploring a given plane of existence.
In this paper, I sought answers to my own questioning, and that of my classmates, regarding a sutra found in Patañjali's Yoga Sutras that connects the attainment of discernment to suffering, suggesting a causal link between the two.
Through the exploration of several interpretations of this classical text, published in books or academic works, I sought to identify evidence, consistencies, or divergences among them that would allow for a better understanding of the relationship between these two concepts, their bearing on the choices made by this school, and on the development of our own personal path.
Keywords: yoga, sutras, suffering, discernment.
The theme of this paper came to light during a class in our specialization course, while we were studying the Yoga Sutras. In the course of studying the scripture, we reached sutra 2.15, which reads: "all is suffering for one who has discernment." If the path of Yoga aims at some form of liberation, how is it possible for someone to find themselves in a state of suffering through enlightenment?
The statement disturbed me, as well as many of my classmates, since it seems inconsistent with the pursuit of discernment; after all, our intuition suggests that such a pursuit should result in relief from suffering, not the opposite.
This might have been only a personal impression, but the reference is explicit in the text of the Bhagavad Gita, chapter 6, verse 17, which reads:
For one who eats, rests, and works in a regulated manner, and who keeps regular hours in proper measure, the practice of yoga dispels all suffering. (MAHARAJ, 2017, p. 110)
A few verses further on (21–22), reinforcing the perspective of the path even more for the Yoga practitioner, I found the following passage:
The yogī remains satisfied in the Lord alone, directly perceiving the Supersoul through his purified consciousness. In his spiritual enlightenment, he savors transcendental and eternal happiness. He never deviates from reality. He considers that there is no greater gain in this world. He is not disturbed even by the worst of sufferings. Know that the attainment of this state, in which all association with unhappiness is eliminated, is called yoga. (MAHARAJ, 2017, p. 112)
Even from another angle, in the perspective of Professor B. K. S. Iyengar, I found the promise of similarly hopeful outcomes for those who dedicate themselves to the practice:
Whoever follows the path of Yoga is a yogi, or yogin. In the sixth chapter of the Bhagavad-Gita, the most authoritative source of yogic philosophy, Sri Krishna explains to Arjuna the meaning of Yoga as a liberation from contact with pain and sorrow:
"When his mind, intellect, and ego (ahamkara) are under control, free from restless desire, so as to rest within the inner spirit, a man becomes a yukta — one who is in communion with God. A lamp does not flicker in a place where no wind blows; the same is true of a yogi who controls his mind, intellect, and ego, absorbed in his inner spirit. When the restlessness of the mind, the intellect, and the ego is stilled through the practice of yoga, the yogi, through the grace of the spirit within himself, attains realization. He then knows the eternal joy that lies beyond the stockade of the senses, a joy his reason cannot reach. He comes to terms with reality and does not flee from it. He has discovered the treasure that stands above all others. There is nothing higher than this. Whoever has attained it will not be shaken by the most intense pain. This is the true meaning of Yoga — a liberation from contact with pain and sorrow." (IYENGAR, 2002, p. 17–18)
Our classroom reading was based on a translation produced by our teacher, with references and supporting material grounded in her own personal experience. Despite the time and attention devoted at that moment to resolving doubts, I still felt the need to seek further elements and other perspectives discussing this statement found in the ancestral texts — research that did not fit within the hours available in that course.
Those who seek out a practice, who adopt a philosophy, aim to achieve or satisfy something; in their choices, they look for compatibility with their aspirations, their profile, and their dedication. Their commitment to that choice will depend on the attainment of their goals, on their own individual fulfillment.
Understanding the foundations advocated by Yoga, its proposals and paths, allows for a better understanding of how well-suited the practitioner is to its precepts — or, at the very least, makes its challenges clear.
The Yoga Sutras, taken as a whole, represent the concrete realization of this practice, a defined path; each recorded sutra reveals the terms of the commitment made by whoever adopts it. In this light, even the analysis of a single sample that seems to contrast with practitioners' expectations can deepen our understanding of it.
This paper takes the form of a literature review that seeks to compare different translations of Patañjali's Yoga Sutras in order to elucidate the meaning of the sutra that highlights the relationship between discernment and suffering.
Translations, shaped by their origins and aims, offer views from distinct angles on the subject, making it possible — through their points of agreement or contrast — to identify possible understandings of, or solutions to, the conflict initially identified.
In this study I drew on dissertations and books dealing with the text in question, and, in a complementary way, on other similar materials that help to detail concepts and guidelines inherent to the philosophy and practice of Yoga.
Regarding the Yoga Sutras specifically, I located four sources that translate and discuss the text and its meanings:
To address the foundations of the philosophy behind the practice and discuss its various perspectives, including those bearing on the sutra under study, I used the book Yoga, imortalidade e liberdade [Yoga: Immortality and Freedom], by Mircea Eliade. The author is a historian of the world's religions; familiar with the universe of symbols, myths, and rites, he systematically seeks points of convergence between Eastern and Western philosophies.
I could not fail to reference the central text of the philosophy, the Srimad Bhagavad Gita, in order to illustrate the principles guiding the practitioner's search along their journey.
With the aim of understanding further foundations of Yoga and their relation to the Yoga Sutras, I found the work O Yoga do eterno retorno [The Yoga of the Eternal Return], a master's thesis by Tomaz Pedrosa de Tassis (UFMG). This work sets out the foundations of the doctrine, based on the millennia-old text and on the analysis of contemporary authors, while also delving into the techniques and motivations behind the practice.
I also found the work Um modo de viver: a ética e a moral do Yoga [A Way of Living: The Ethics and Morality of Yoga], a master's thesis by Júlia Ceconi Foletto (UFRGS), which investigates the moral and ethical aspects of yoga in light of the psychology of moral development. This work discusses the foundations established by Patañjali, as well as presenting research on how these precepts have influenced a group of individuals.
With this paper I intend to present relevant information and references to aid understanding — and possibly resolve doubts — about the warning contained in the sutra, as well as to offer guidance for those just beginning this path of inquiry.
Accordingly, the path I set out to follow was to present the Yoga Sutras, their structure, and the section in which the phrase in question is located. With that context established, I presented how each source interprets the passage at hand and what elements it offers in support of its interpretation. Finally, I sought to identify points of agreement or disagreement among these views and, where possible, occasionally pointed toward directions for further inquiry.
The image of Yoga practice as a tool for liberation from the afflictions of material existence appears throughout the philosophical texts referenced here, as in the translation analyzed from Iyengar, who, describing the method, states early in the opening pages:
Sādhanā is a methodical, sequential means of attaining the sādhaka's goals in life. The sādhaka's goals are: right duty (dharma), right purpose and just resources (artha), right inclinations (kāma), and ultimate liberation, or emancipation (mokṣa). (IYENGAR, 2002, p. 5)
Thus, for the practitioner seeking guidance on goals and objectives, liberation is taught from the very outset and forms the framework of expectations for the effort undertaken.
Confirming this perspective, Eliade, in his study of the philosophy, states that the idea of liberation permeates not only Yoga but the whole of Indian culture and its system of thought:
"Liberating oneself" from suffering is the purpose of all Indian philosophies and all Indian mysticisms. Whether this liberation is attained directly through "knowledge," as taught, for example, by Vedanta and Sankhya, or through techniques, as held, alongside Yoga, by most Buddhist schools, the fact remains that no system of thought has value unless its purpose is the "salvation" of man. (ELIADE, 2012, p. 26)
The author begins his study from what he calls the "equation of existence," directing his attention precisely to sutra 2.15, thereby laying out the first steps toward uncovering the notable inconsistency between the path of liberation and the challenge of being subject to pain.
It is important to note that, in his view, even with the weight of this condition, it does not amount to a collapse into pessimism; rather, it serves as fuel that drives the seeker to confront the challenge, making the experience of suffering part of the process toward attaining the greater goal:
However, this universal pain does not end in a "pessimistic philosophy." No philosophy, no Indian "gnosis" leads to despair. On the contrary, the revelation of "pain" as a law of existence may be regarded as the conditio sine qua non of liberation. (ELIADE, 2012, p. 25)
In other words, suffering is necessary, but transient — even though the forces at play are extreme and conditioning, and even though overcoming them requires attaining supreme states of refinement, not to mention the need to bear in mind the metaphysical context of this experience. The good news is that everyone has the possibility of reaching the goal:
Thus, if the human condition is destined for eternal pain insofar as it is determined, like every condition, by karman, each individual who shares in that condition can overcome it, since each one is able to nullify the karmic forces that drive it. (ELIADE, 2017, p. 26)
The sutra at the center of this study was cited above in isolation, without reference to the context in which the phrase is embedded — a relevant point given this particular style of composition, a characteristic that will be detailed below when I present the Yoga Sutras themselves.
If liberation is possible, how can it come about, and within what scope can it occur, so as to bring an end to the inevitability of suffering? Eliade defines the moment and the scope when he analyzes how this liberation was conceived by the original philosophical schools:
Suffering is extinguished once we understand that it is external to the spirit, that it concerns only the human "personality" (asmita). Let us imagine the life of a "liberated" person. He will continue to act, because the potencies of his previous existences, as well as those of his own present existence prior to the "awakening," require actualization and exhaustion in accordance with the law of karma. (ELIADE, 2017, p. 42)
The person "liberated while living" no longer experiences a personal consciousness — that is, one nourished by his own history — but rather a witnessing consciousness, consisting of pure lucidity and spontaneity. (ELIADE, 2017, p. 298)
I also found a definition of the Yoga system that corroborates this view of liberation. In his work on the concepts of time and eternity within the Classical Yoga tradition, as well as on the relationship between worldly existence and the aspects of suffering, the author writes that "the YS [Yoga Sutras] attest to being a manual (anuśāsana) for those who long to transcend earthly life and the suffering inherent to it (duḥkha)." (TASSIS, 2018, p. 18).
With some of the origins of this idea of liberation now identified, it becomes necessary to turn to the Yoga Sutras themselves in order to locate elements that either corroborate this expectation, reconcile these various views, or reveal a misunderstanding in the claims found so far.
The Yoga Sutras, a compendium on yoga attributed to the sage Patañjali, set out the principles of the practice without presenting themselves as a manual detailing methods and techniques; instead, they outline goals and perspectives, thereby tracing a path for the daily exercise of this ancient philosophy.
Recorded in Sanskrit, the text was composed of sutras that, within the ancient oral tradition, allowed for more faithful and easier memorization. The root of the word sutra is associated with stitching, so that the phrases or ideas are, as it were, stitched together to form "a fabric" of the knowledge being described.
We should therefore be careful not to regard them simply as aphorisms, as they are commonly described, since, as Barbosa rightly warns us, aphorisms are brief, weighty sentences — maxims, proverbs. Sutras, by contrast, are well characterized by the author as follows:
Many scholars call the Sutras "Aphorisms of Patanjali." An aphorism, however, is a sentence that conveys a teaching by itself, without needing the support of other sentences.
The chained character of the Sutras, however, in which each sentence is entirely dependent on those before it, rules out attributing an aphoristic character to this doctrinal text of Yoga. (BARBOSA, 2015, p. 32)
In light of this, we need to locate the context of the sentence central to this paper, seeking to delimit a passage sufficient to illustrate an understanding of the concept under discussion. This requires situating exactly where this passage occurs and what role it plays in the development of the logic being presented.
Organized into four chapters, the text seeks to build a path for regulating the practice, arranging its principles in a constructive manner, gradually linking together the development of its concepts. The parts (or padas) are named Samadhi, Sadhana, Vibhuti, and Kaivalyam.
Already in the description of these component parts I found differences in the emphasis given by each translator, or even in how each one chooses to present the purpose of each section — to be expected, given their heterogeneous origins and, certainly, their own personal experiences.
Arieira names the chapters The Aim, The Means, The Achievements, and Liberation, respectively, setting out at the start of each one the general lines that will guide the narrative before presenting each sutra together with its translation, illustrated by commentary.
Likewise, Gulmini names the parts according to her own understanding, giving them the titles On Integration, On the Means of Realization, On the Powers Involved, and On Absolute Isolation, respectively, also using the opening of each section to introduce the content it covers.
Barbosa, for his part, uses his introductory sections to describe the component parts of the Yoga Sutras on page 32 of his book, using a few paragraphs that summarize the content of each part without assigning a distinct title to each chapter.
Finally, Iyengar wrote four introductory chapters to contextualize each section of the original text, and then, in four further chapters, presents the sutras and their respective translations along with additional commentary, illustrating and deepening our understanding of the ideas recorded there.
Whether through the choice of titles or through the way each section is described, we can see the different emphasis given by each author, even though they all address the same subject — in some cases in a more practical way, in others by extending the discussion into the views of their own philosophical or religious traditions.
For example, with regard to the third part, Arieira writes:
Chapters 3 and 4 are hermetic, difficult to understand. The translations and explanations presented here are an attempt to connect these sutras to the Advaita Vedanta tradition.
In the third chapter, Sri Patanjali deals with the last three angas, or limbs, of Yoga. Dharana, concentration; dhyana, meditation; and samadhi, absorption, are together called samyama. The three constitute the natural process of meditation, which should be followed daily as one of the essential practices of a life of Yoga. (ARIEIRA, 2017, p. 169)
Barbosa, on the other hand, addresses this description more concisely, presenting in a practical and direct way what awaits the reader:
The last three components of Yoga, which together make up the meditation of Yoga (Samyama), are described at the beginning of the third chapter and deal essentially with the transformation of the mind through the practice of meditation, and with the results that can be obtained from it. At the end of this chapter, there is a reflection on the discernment that allows one to distinguish between the essential and the spiritual. (BARBOSA, 2015, p. 32–33)
Even so, it is possible to see that these are analyses of the same content; after all, the four main sources used in this paper are all translations of the same Sanskrit text, arising from different origins and influences, but always respecting the same divisions and organization of the original work.
In our case, the sutra under study is found in the second chapter of the text, the Sadhana Pada. The word that titles this chapter already illustrates the purpose of the ideas it contains, since for every yogi, sadhana represents their daily practice as well as a personal process — that is, Patañjali offers here the first tools for leaving behind our afflictions and attaining the state of samadhi introduced in the first chapter.
Made up of 55 sutras, the chapter under study opens with the first 11 describing what the state of samadhi is and what disturbances or afflictions may befall us, along with their respective causes, concluding with the presentation of the solution: meditation.
In the next 4 sutras — which include the sutra at the heart of this paper — the sources of this cycle are set out, together with observations on their relations to the process. This is the set of sutras we will need to compare in order to try to shed further light on the meaning of the last sutra in this group. The passage in question, in the original Sanskrit, is transliterated in IAST as follows:
12 kleśamūlaḥ karmāśayaḥ dṛṣṭa adṛṣṭa janma vedanīyaḥ 13 sati mūle tadvipākaḥ jāti āyuḥ bhogāḥ 14 te hlāda paritāpa phalāḥ puṇya apuṇya hetutvāt 15 pariṇāma tāpa saṁskāra duḥkhaiḥ guṇavṛtti virodhāt ca duḥkham eva sarvaṁ vivekinaḥ (IYENGAR, 2015, p. 149)
The following 14 sutras describe what we should guard against, along with the causes and consequences of each affliction. Finally, in the last 26 sutras, the more outward practices of Yoga are presented as part of the solution, arranged in a well-defined structure that builds a solid foundation for confronting the challenge of existence.
In his text, Barbosa offers the following translation of the sutras under study:
12. The receptacle of karma is the root of disturbances and should be perceived as the origin of the visible and the invisible.
13. In this root of reality, ripening takes the form of birth, lifespan, and experience.
14. These are the fruits of pleasure, or of regret, depending on whether they arise from virtuous or vicious actions.
15. Also because of the conflict between the activity of the gunas and natural transformations, with purification, with habits, and with suffering, everything is suffering for one who has discernment. (BARBOSA, 2015, p. 83–85)
In addition, the author includes a number of textual notes (not reproduced above) to deepen the understanding of their meaning. However, he says little about the question of suffering itself, much like the original text, allowing us only to note that the statement follows as a consequence of other factors.
I should highlight the note made by Barbosa to clarify the original word translated as discernment, as well as the meaning applied to it within the context of the work:
Sutra II, 15. Viveka is the discernment that allows us to distinguish between objects and concepts of differing natures. Discernment, however, can lead us toward a pessimistic view of the world. Patanjali's optimism guides us toward seeking the way of life that destroys suffering. (BARBOSA, 2015, p. 85)
I observed, then, that the discernment interpreted here is set within a fairly specific context. Moreover, its conditioning toward suffering is presented as optional, since it merely "can lead us toward a pessimistic view" — which is not necessarily something determinative.
However, I do not find the same level of detail in the text regarding the meaning of suffering itself, or its implications and causal relations with the other elements of the philosophy or the practice, which limits the exploration of a different angle on this interpretation.
Further on in the same chapter, in sutra 26, a statement appears that reinforces our sense of discomfort with the relationship posited between discernment and suffering. Barbosa comments on this sutra, telling us that "this Sutra states that discernment is the heart of the method of Yoga, since it creates the right conditions for kaivalya." (BARBOSA, 2015, p. 89).
Now, if discernment — or its attainment — is the heart of the method, then, according to the author, this would ultimately mean that we are, in effect, seeking suffering, as a consequence of the statement made in sutra 15 of this chapter, were that relationship deterministic and inescapable.
It is also worth noting the almost cryptic way in which the author presents the sutras, suggesting that his style has been somewhat shaped by the style of the original text he is translating. Even with his introductory texts and the notes scattered throughout the translation, Barbosa does not exhaust the possible meanings, nor does he expand the discussion, leaving much of the understanding to our own capacity for interpretation and to our particular store of knowledge and experience.
Arieira presents her version of the passage central to this study as follows:
12. The reservoir of karma is rooted in the kleshas and must be experienced in this birth and in future births.
13. As long as the root exists, the manifestation of those [karmas] will occur, [determining] birth, longevity, and experiences.
14. These are the results — satisfaction or suffering — since they are caused by merit and demerit.
15. For the person endowed with discrimination, everything is, without exception, suffering, owing both to the suffering that originates in the tendency toward anxiety and the ever-changing nature of things, and to the opposition found in the expression of the gunas. (ARIEIRA, 2017, p. 113–116)
The author explores the aspect of suffering in greater detail, interpreting its causality as a consequence of attachment to the enjoyment of satisfaction. Suffering itself already displeases us, but experiences of satisfaction also produce anguish at their ending, since they will inevitably cease in accordance with the temporal nature of existence.
This notion of a cycle between experiences becomes clear when she writes:
Whether it is suffering at the start of an experience, owing to the difficulty of bringing it about, or, even if there is pleasure at the start, suffering at the end, owing to the conclusion of the pleasurable experience or because, in the course of it, the person grew tired and lost interest.
Since everything is constantly changing, there is always anxiety regarding undesirable changes, and a certain suffering arising from the natural opposition of the gunas, the qualities of nature. (ARIEIRA, 2017, p. 116–117)
It is worth noting that, in this case, what is mentioned is a certain suffering — that is, not an absolute, definitive, and unavoidable suffering — which leaves room for hope of some solution to avoid it, the prospect of some path around it, or at least the possibility that it may be minimized, without bringing down the entire effort behind the construction of a higher vision.
Worth highlighting is the attention Arieira gives to illustrating her translation with references to other foundational texts, the Bhagavad Gita and the Vedas, showing how concepts run through and interconnect the principal sources of this philosophical school.
It is true that these mentions and digressions into other sources draw attention away from the main path, but careful analysis of this set of references enriches our understanding, helping to broaden the picture set out by the sutras, and expanding the range of elements through which we may access their cultural and philosophical context.
In a reference to the Bhagavad Gita, through a passage cited by the author, it becomes clear that the discussion centers on aspects of material nature, and therefore does not condemn us to suffering across every sphere of existence:
The contact of the senses with their objects brings cold, heat, joy, and sorrow; they are of short duration and impermanent, O Kauteya, Arjuna. O Bharata, Arjuna, endure them with tolerance. (ARIEIRA, 2017, p. 119)
It is certainly true that Arjuna, in his particular condition and his particular era, was better equipped to deal with the impermanent — to distinguish it from what truly matters, and thereby to cope with, and tolerate, the hardships of material nature. Even though we are infinitely less capable, we can aspire to the same goal, even without fully reaching it, knowing at least that there is a way to attain it.
This message is made quite explicit in the author's commentary when she addresses the work of cultivating discernment, telling us that:
The greatest obstacle to clear knowledge is, without doubt, ignorance, which can only be removed by its opposite, knowledge. But this is not as simple as it might seem, since the mind must be prepared — it must be capable of focusing, of analyzing impartially, and of correcting the old orientation of the Self's identity, built up out of ignorance and confusion about oneself. (ARIEIRA, 2017, p. 135)
In her discussion of sutra 2.25, Arieira mentions the elimination of suffering, even associating it with — or translating it as — kleśa, bringing a different nuance to our understanding of its meaning:
It was said earlier that klesha, suffering, and its cause, ignorance, must be eliminated — heya. Hana is the elimination of suffering and of its cause; it is the liberation of the subject. This occurs only through the elimination of mistaken perception. (ARIEIRA, 2017, p. 133)
More important still, however, is the fact that her statement does not present suffering as inevitable — as a sentence handed down to those who attain understanding — but rather as a possibility that must be, and will be, overcome through the dedicated effort grounded in the full adoption of Yoga practice.
In this interpretation of the Yoga Sutras, the author adopts an interesting approach to discussing each part of the text, working in two stages. First, he sequentially presents what he calls the "themes" of the four padas, an analysis of the content of each of these sections. Afterward, having analyzed the whole text in this way, he carries out the translation proper, going through each part in order, detailing each sutra and its context.
In this way, a meaningful gain in understanding can be achieved, since the broader panorama of the text's meaning is laid out, pointing toward the directions in which the fabric of ideas will be woven. For example, the general perspective guiding the sadhana pada is well captured when he writes:
It guides us through our weaknesses toward emancipation through the devoted practice of yoga. This chapter, which anyone may happily follow for their spiritual benefit, is his gift to humanity. (IYENGAR, 2002, p. 42)
This makes clear the motivation behind the passage in which the sutra at the center of this study is embedded: a guide toward liberation from our weaknesses, accessible to any individual seeking self-improvement. Just below, it is also possible to identify the idea of liberation from suffering — the very theme of the question that gave rise to this study — when the author tells us that "when these three aspects of kriyāyoga are followed with zeal and sincerity, the sufferings of life are overcome, and samādhi is experienced." (IYENGAR, 2002, p. 42).
The mention of the possibility of overcoming the sufferings of life is unmistakable, allowing us to hope that, even though these sufferings may pervade the whole of existence, sincere and dedicated effort can free the individual from what might otherwise seem an inescapable sentence.
The following section, in its very first paragraph, already sheds light on our understanding of suffering, associating it with the kleśas, also known as afflictions, inherent to the experience of the material world:
The kleśas (sufferings or afflictions) have five causes: ignorance, or a lack of wisdom and understanding (avidyā); pride or egoism (asmitā); attachment (rāga); aversion (dveṣa); and fear of death and clinging to life (abhiniveśa). (IYENGAR, 2002, p. 42)
This being so, it is the snares of this world that will pose the challenge, and it falls to the practitioner to follow the guidance of the masters — just as the author states in the section "How to Minimize the Afflictions," noting that there is a way to escape an undesirable fate, since "Patañjali advises impartiality with regard to pleasures and pains, and recommends the practice of meditation in order to attain freedom and beatitude." (IYENGAR, 2002, p. 43).
Then, having presented this broader view of the pada, in the chapter devoted to working through the interpretation sutra by sutra, Professor Iyengar renders the ancestral text for our own time, with all its propriety and cultural influence:
12. The accumulated impressions of past lives, rooted in the afflictions, will be experienced in this life and in future ones.
13. As long as the root of these actions exists, it will give rise to one's class of birth, lifespan, and experiences.
14. According to our good, bad, or mixed actions, the quality of our life, its duration, and the nature of our birth are experienced as pleasurable or painful.
15. The wise man knows that, owing to the fluctuations, the qualities of nature, and the subliminal impressions, even pleasurable experiences are tinged with anguish, and so he keeps himself apart from them. (IYENGAR, 2002, p. 149–153)
I note that his translation makes no mention of the word suffering, but instead uses the expression "anguish," clearly associated with the afflictions; nor does he use the word discernment, instead placing the action with the "wise man" who knows — that is, who distinguishes — the nature of what he observes.
Within this discussion of the afflictions, in the first sutras of this section, he has already signaled that we must pay close attention to this subject if we wish to eliminate such anguish, even making clear that this is in fact an achievable goal:
The sādhaka must learn to locate the sources of the afflictions in order to be able to cut them off at the root through his yogic principles and disciplines (see I.8, viparyaya). (IYENGAR, 2002, p. 143)
Thus, by treating affliction as the central theme of this struggle in the search for liberation, and by further defining the warnings — what the challenges are — it becomes clear that the discussion is oriented toward the goals and achievements of spiritual life, in purusa, rather than toward the material world:
The subtler afflictions begin with attachment to life, move in reverse order, counter to the spiritual evolution described in II.3, and end with the grossest affliction, ignorance. The subtler afflictions must be overcome before they lead to a worse problem. (IYENGAR, 2002, p. 148)
With this framework established — regarding the afflictions, the solutions offered by the practice, and a discussion that is more detailed and more closely aligned with the precepts of the philosophy — the sutra in question becomes more consonant with practitioners' usual expectations.
The author groups the sutras throughout her translation, forming clusters whose meaning makes up a single unit of thought, mapping out for the reader the connections among more complex concepts and presenting a more didactic flow of discourse for the sake of comprehension.
In addition to this approach to organization, she illustrates the concepts with references to other texts belonging to the same cultural and philosophical context, richly clarifying the aspects discussed, their roles, their interconnections, and their consequences.
At the start of the sadhana pada, she announces the possibility of liberation, linking the practitioner's action to the prevention of the afflictions, telling us that "Patañjali begins his exposition by outlining the discipline necessary for the yogin to overcome the so-called 'afflictions,' klesha." (GULMINI, 2002, p. 213).
A little further on, in the same paragraph, she associates the afflictions with the experiential state of material nature, characteristic of the condition of consciousness in its realization as an individual:
... these same causes are also called "afflictions" — the more subtle and "powerful" causes that generate and sustain these movements, responsible for the very persistence of consciousness in a state of imprisonment. (GULMINI, 2002, p. 213)
She points out, and confirms, that what the yogin seeks is discernment, and she even relates it to the principal affliction, avidya, as an effect of the loss of control over this sought-after capacity:
The yogin seeks this special knowledge, viveka, which manifests only with the stilling of consciousness, with a view to eradicating its state of ignorance. But with the manifestation, or movement, of consciousness, this discrimination is lost, and "ignorance," avidya, is born. (GULMINI, 2002, p. 213)
We then arrive at the set of sutras central to this paper, for which Gulmini offers the following translation:
12. The deposit of actions, rooted in the afflictions, must be experienced in seen and unseen births.
13. Being rooted in this way, this ripening of the fruits of action determines: one's condition of birth, lifespan, and life experience.
14. These bear the fruits of delight and of torment, depending on whether they are caused by virtue or by vice.
15. Owing to the pains caused by latent impressions and to the suffering arising from transformations, and given the opposition between the movements of the phenomenal aspects, the perceptive sages can perceive that, in fact, everything is pain. (GULMINI, 2002, p. 225)
Here the word used is not suffering but pain. However, when she goes on to analyze the passage, the mention of pain disappears. In its place, it would seem, she discusses the afflictions of human beings, seeking to address the mechanism of incarnation that they set in motion — a different perspective on the theme of the sutras grouped here.
Later, almost at the close of her discussion of this set of sutras, the author associates suffering with the effort of dealing with this mechanism, while still offering hope, since she suggests that this condition will occur, at least, only in its initial stages — that is, it is not permanent and will be overcome as the individual progresses:
Whoever comes to know the workings of their own consciousness gains the power to act upon it, and to understand its responses. However, the knowledge capable of producing this power of control over consciousness requires a great deal of work before it is attained, and over the course of this process — or at least in its initial stages — the yogin will face a great deal of suffering: contrary "reactions" arising from their own latent impressions, opposing what they are trying to do — namely, to master and extinguish them. (GULMINI, 2002, p. 235–236)
She then closes by presenting suffering and the need for liberation side by side, defining the coexistence of these two factors in the practitioner's life:
Phenomenal transformations stand opposed to the immutability of the unconditioned being, and give rise, on the one hand, to the phenomenal "enchantment" that produces the experience of life, and, on the other hand, to the "disenchantment" that finally reveals one's hidden suffering and the need to seek liberation. (GULMINI, 2002, p. 237)
Nonetheless, although she appears to point toward some solution, or some deepening of our understanding of the aspects of suffering, her mention of the causal link between discernment and pain remains no more than a statement confirming what Patañjali described, without advancing the discussion further or offering other references that might clarify its meaning or reconcile it with the set of ideas presented earlier:
However, Patañjali's conclusion in these statements of the Yogasūtra is that, owing to these conditioned and conditioning mechanisms that govern phenomenal experiences, "the perceptive sages can perceive that, in fact, everything is pain." (Cf. YS 2.15). (GULMINI, 2002, p. 236)
Thus, even with a more detailed text and the presentation of further elements contextualizing these ideas, the relationship between pain and discernment remains undefined — or, at the very least, the directions indicated do not yield answers that adequately address the question that prompted this paper.
Exploring different interpretations can help illustrate the meaning of the sutra that prompted this inquiry, but it also shows how many layers cover the expression of that meaning. Each author brings their own experience and culture to their view of the text — which could hardly be otherwise, yet remains interesting to observe.
In none of the cases examined does the statement — the apparent condemnation to suffering suggested at first contact — seem to hold up, particularly when we take into account the other threads, the other seams stitched by the related sutras that together make up the fabric of the ancestral text.
Nor did the relationship between discernment and suffering appear to be a central focus of the interpretations found here. Perhaps it does not stand out for these authors among so many other aspects present in the Yoga Sutras, or perhaps the question is already quite clear to them through their own experience and further study.
It is also worth noting the difference produced by the approach each author takes to clarification — sometimes through more concise translations, almost sutras in another language, and sometimes through longer, more didactic discussions of the text in question. Each approach has its own value, its own share in provoking distinct and enriching questions that complement the many nuances of this ancient school.
The discussion does not take place within the material world — another common confusion produced by our impression of being immersed in it — but rather aims at a transcendent object, one that is, for that very reason, less accessible to our understanding, yet no less deserving of our attention and intention.
In my own understanding, the sutra at the heart of this paper shows that, for one who attains discernment, it becomes evident that every element of the material world can be a cause of suffering; everything will depend on how prepared we are to deal with existence. This paper does not exhaust the samples analyzed here, and new sources will certainly continue to contribute to our own preparation, and to that of others who venture along the path of Yoga.
It is likely that the discomfort produced by encountering this sutra — which gave rise to the motivation for the present paper — is itself part of the very suffering it describes; yet, once recognized, it becomes easier to accept this seeming condemnation, since it has proven an excellent driving force in the search for deeper understanding and improvement along the path of practice.
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